Writing the Past, Present, and Future: The Impact of Positive Psychology Expressive Writing on Adolescents’ Time Attitudes

ERCT Criteria Breakdown

• Level 1 Criteria

  • C

    Class-level RCT

    • Randomization was at the individual participant level rather than at the class (or stronger) level, so class-level isolation is not ensured.
    • Randomization was conducted by an independent research assistant not involved in subsequent data collection or intervention delivery, using a computer-generated random number sequence to assign participants to either the PPEW intervention group or the control group.
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "A total of 285 adolescents from Northwest China (M = 14.13, SD = 1.075; 53.3% female) were randomly assigned to either a PPEW group (n = 148) or a control group (n = 137)." (Abstract) 2) "Randomization was conducted by an independent research assistant not involved in subsequent data collection or intervention delivery, using a computer-generated random number sequence to assign participants to either the PPEW intervention group or the control group." (Section 2.3, Procedure) 3) "During evening self-study sessions, participants in the PPEW group and the control group completed the writing tasks in their respective assigned classrooms." (Section 2.3, Procedure) Detailed Analysis: Criterion C requires random assignment at the class level (or a stronger cluster such as school), unless the intervention is explicitly one-to-one tutoring/personal teaching. The paper explicitly describes participant-level random assignment ("assign participants"), not assignment of intact classes or schools. The mention of completing tasks in "assigned classrooms" describes where tasks occurred, not the unit of randomization. Because the randomized unit is the individual adolescent, the study does not meet the ERCT requirement designed to reduce within-class contamination, and the tutoring exception does not apply. Final sentence: Criterion C is not met because individuals, not entire classes (or schools), were randomized.
  • E

    Exam-based Assessment

    • Outcomes were measured using self-report psychological scales, not widely recognized standardized exams.
    • Time attitude was assessed using the Chinese version of the Adolescent Time Attitude Scale (Li et al., 2021).
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "Time attitude was assessed using the Chinese version of the Adolescent Time Attitude Scale (Li et al., 2021)." (Section 2.2.1) 2) "Positive affect was assessed using the positive affect subscale of the Chinese version of the Positive and Negative Affect Scale for Children (Pan et al., 2025)." (Section 2.2.2) 3) "Depressive symptoms were assessed using the depression symptoms subscale of the Chinese version of the Depression-Anxiety-Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21, Xie et al., 2022)." (Section 2.2.3) Detailed Analysis: Criterion E requires standardized exam-based assessments of educational achievement (e.g., national/state achievement tests), rather than self-report instruments measuring psychological constructs. This study’s outcomes are time attitudes, positive affect, and depressive symptoms, assessed via questionnaire scales (ATAS, PANAS-C, and DASS-21). These are not exam-based educational outcome measures. Final sentence: Criterion E is not met because the study used self-report scales rather than standardized exam-based assessments.
  • T

    Term Duration

    • The intervention lasted six weeks and outcomes were measured immediately after it ended, which is shorter than one academic term.
    • Baseline assessments were completed before the intervention commenced, and post-intervention evaluations were conducted immediately after the program ended.
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "The PPEW group received a six-week positive psychology expressive writing intervention, administered once per week with each session lasting approximately 20 min (Nie et al., 2023)." (Section 2.4) 2) "Baseline assessments were completed before the intervention commenced, and post-intervention evaluations were conducted immediately after the program ended." (Section 2.3, Procedure) Detailed Analysis: Criterion T requires that outcomes be measured at least one full academic term after the intervention begins (typically ~3 to 4 months), to assess persistence beyond a short immediate window. The paper states a "six-week" intervention and states outcomes were collected "immediately after the program ended." Six weeks is shorter than a typical academic term, and no additional term-length follow-up is described. Final sentence: Criterion T is not met because the start-to-measure interval was six weeks with immediate post-testing, not a full term.
  • D

    Documented Control Group

    • The paper provides clear control-group description and baseline comparability information (sample sizes, demographics, and baseline equivalence tests).
    • Independent samples t-test and chi-square tests indicated no statistically significant differences between the groups in age (t = 0.91, p = 0.366), gender [χ2(1) = 0.93, p = 0.334], or grade level [χ2(1) = 0.59, p = 0.443], confirming successful randomization and baseline comparability.
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "Consequently, the final per-protocol analysis included 285 participants (PPEW group: n = 148; control group: n = 137)." (Section 2.1, Participants) 2) "The PPEW group comprised 148 participants (M = 14.07, SD = 1.063), including 65 males, 83 females, with 93 in Grade 7 and 55 in Grade 10. The control group included 137 participants (M = 14.19, SD = 1.088), with 68 males, 69 females, 80 in Grade 7, and 57 in Grade 10." (Section 2.1, Participants) 3) "Independent samples t-test and chi-square tests indicated no statistically significant differences between the groups in age (t = 0.91, p = 0.366), gender [χ2(1) = 0.93, p = 0.334], or grade level [χ2(1) = 0.59, p = 0.443], confirming successful randomization and baseline comparability." (Section 2.1, Participants) 4) "The control group, within the same timeframe, completed writing tasks focused on describing neutral life details." (Section 2.4) Detailed Analysis: Criterion D requires that the control group be well documented, including who they are, their characteristics at baseline, and what they received as the control condition. The paper reports control-group size, demographics (age, gender, grade distribution), and includes statistical baseline equivalence checks. It also describes the control activity (neutral writing) and indicates it occurred in the same timeframe. Final sentence: Criterion D is met because the control group’s composition, baseline comparability, and activities are clearly documented.

• Level 2 Criteria

  • S

    School-level RCT

    • Randomization assigned individual participants, not whole schools, so the study is not a school-level RCT.
    • Randomization was conducted by an independent research assistant not involved in subsequent data collection or intervention delivery, using a computer-generated random number sequence to assign participants to either the PPEW intervention group or the control group.
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "Randomization was conducted by an independent research assistant not involved in subsequent data collection or intervention delivery, using a computer-generated random number sequence to assign participants to either the PPEW intervention group or the control group." (Section 2.3, Procedure) 2) "This study recruited participants through school-wide announcements, and both adolescent assent and parental written informed consent were obtained." (Section 2.3, Procedure) Detailed Analysis: Criterion S requires randomization among schools (or equivalent institutional sites). The paper clearly describes recruitment in a school setting, but the randomization unit is explicitly the individual participant. There is no statement indicating that schools (or intact sites) were randomly assigned to intervention vs control. Final sentence: Criterion S is not met because randomization was not conducted at the school level.
  • I

    Independent Conduct

    • While randomization was done by an assistant and assessors were blinded, the paper does not document an external independent evaluation team separate from the intervention designers/authors.
    • Both assessment (questionnaire administration) and intervention delivery were carried out by two uniformly trained master’s students in psychology, with outcome assessors remaining blinded to participants’ group assignments throughout the study.
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "Randomization was conducted by an independent research assistant not involved in subsequent data collection or intervention delivery, using a computer-generated random number sequence to assign participants to either the PPEW intervention group or the control group." (Section 2.3, Procedure) 2) "Both assessment (questionnaire administration) and intervention delivery were carried out by two uniformly trained master’s students in psychology, with outcome assessors remaining blinded to participants’ group assignments throughout the study." (Section 2.3, Procedure) 3) "Based on the analysis above, this study targets time attitude as the intervention focus (Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2022) and integrates positive psychology interventions with expressive writing to develop an intervention program termed positive psychology expressive writing (PPEW)." (Section 1.3) Detailed Analysis: Criterion I requires that the study be conducted independently from the authors who designed the intervention, typically by an external evaluation team or organization. The paper includes safeguards (an "independent research assistant" for randomization and blinded outcome assessors). However, it does not clearly state that the evaluation was conducted by an independent third-party team separate from the intervention designers/authors; instead, delivery and assessment were performed by trained students within the study team context. Final sentence: Criterion I is not met because independence from the intervention designers is not clearly established beyond limited task-specific roles (randomization and blinding).
  • Y

    Year Duration

    • The study ran for six weeks with immediate post-testing, which is far below 75% of an academic year, and it also fails Criterion T.
    • Baseline assessments were completed before the intervention commenced, and post-intervention evaluations were conducted immediately after the program ended.
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "The PPEW group received a six-week positive psychology expressive writing intervention, administered once per week with each session lasting approximately 20 min (Nie et al., 2023)." (Section 2.4) 2) "Baseline assessments were completed before the intervention commenced, and post-intervention evaluations were conducted immediately after the program ended." (Section 2.3, Procedure) Detailed Analysis: Criterion Y requires that outcomes be measured at least 75% of an academic year after intervention start. This study’s intervention and measurement window is six weeks with immediate post-testing, which is far shorter than an academic year. Additionally, per the ERCT dependency rule, if Criterion T is not met, Criterion Y is not met. Since T is not met here, Y cannot be met. Final sentence: Criterion Y is not met because the study’s start-to-measure interval is six weeks, not ~1 academic year.
  • B

    Balanced Control Group

    • Both groups completed writing tasks on the same schedule and in the same setting with similar supervision, so time and implementation resources appear balanced.
    • The control group, within the same timeframe, completed writing tasks focused on describing neutral life details.
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "The PPEW group received a six-week positive psychology expressive writing intervention, administered once per week with each session lasting approximately 20 min (Nie et al., 2023)." (Section 2.4) 2) "The control group, within the same timeframe, completed writing tasks focused on describing neutral life details." (Section 2.4) 3) "During evening self-study sessions, participants in the PPEW group and the control group completed the writing tasks in their respective assigned classrooms." (Section 2.3, Procedure) 4) "Each session began after a research assistant read out the standardized instructions, and was conducted under full supervision to ensure compliance, address any questions, and maintain the independence of task execution." (Section 2.3, Procedure) Detailed Analysis: Criterion B asks whether the intervention group received additional resources (time, budget, materials) that were not matched in the control group, unless extra resources were explicitly the treatment variable. Here, both groups performed writing tasks over the same six-week period, in classroom settings, with standardized instructions and supervision. The primary difference is the writing content (positive psychology themes vs neutral life details), not additional time or staffing resources. Under the Criterion B decision logic, the study does not show a meaningful additional time/budget advantage for the PPEW group; the implementation inputs appear comparable. Final sentence: Criterion B is met because both groups received comparable time and implementation resources, differing mainly in writing content.

• Level 3 Criteria

  • R

    Reproduced

    • No independent published replication of this specific 2026 PPEW RCT was identified, and the paper itself does not report a replication.
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) (No statement about an independent replication of this PPEW trial is provided in the paper.) Detailed Analysis: Criterion R requires evidence that the same intervention and core design have been independently replicated by a different research team and published in a peer-reviewed journal. This article reports a single RCT and does not claim to be a replication of a prior trial, nor does it cite an external study that independently replicated this exact PPEW protocol. An internet literature search (by title, DOI, and key terms) did not identify an independent replication of this specific 2026 study as of the ERCT check date. Final sentence: Criterion R is not met because there is no quoted or located evidence of an independent replication of this specific study.
  • A

    All-subject Exams

    • Because the study does not use standardized exam-based outcomes (Criterion E not met), it cannot satisfy the all-subject exams requirement.
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "Time attitude was assessed using the Chinese version of the Adolescent Time Attitude Scale (Li et al., 2021)." (Section 2.2.1) 2) "Positive affect was assessed using the positive affect subscale of the Chinese version of the Positive and Negative Affect Scale for Children (Pan et al., 2025)." (Section 2.2.2) 3) "Depressive symptoms were assessed using the depression symptoms subscale of the Chinese version of the Depression-Anxiety-Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21, Xie et al., 2022)." (Section 2.2.3) Detailed Analysis: Criterion A requires standardized exam-based assessment across all main school subjects. This study measures psychological constructs via questionnaires and does not report standardized academic exams. Per the ERCT dependency rule, if Criterion E is not met, Criterion A is not met. Since E is not met here, A must also be not met. Final sentence: Criterion A is not met because there are no standardized exam-based measures, and therefore no all-subject exam coverage.
  • G

    Graduation Tracking

    • The study explicitly reports no long-term follow-up, and because it also fails the year-duration requirement, it cannot meet graduation tracking.
    • Third, the study design did not include long-term follow-up or an intervention fidelity check.
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "Baseline assessments were completed before the intervention commenced, and post-intervention evaluations were conducted immediately after the program ended." (Section 2.3, Procedure) 2) "Third, the study design did not include long-term follow-up or an intervention fidelity check." (Section 4, Discussion) Detailed Analysis: Criterion G requires tracking participants until graduation from the relevant educational stage. This paper describes only immediate post-intervention assessment and explicitly notes that there was no "long-term follow-up." Therefore, it does not report tracking through any graduation milestone. Per ERCT dependency guidance, if Criterion Y is not met, Criterion G is not met. Since Y is not met (six-week duration), graduation tracking is necessarily not satisfied in this study. Additionally, an internet search for follow-up publications by the same author team tracking this cohort to graduation did not identify any such follow-up paper as of the ERCT check date. Final sentence: Criterion G is not met because there is no long-term follow-up and no graduation tracking (and Y is not met).
  • P

    Pre-Registered

    • The paper provides ethics approval details but no evidence of a publicly pre-registered protocol (registry name/ID and timing).
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Psychology at Northwest Normal University (Approval No: 2025012; date of approval: 3 March 2025)." (Institutional Review Board Statement) 2) (No pre-registration statement, registry ID, or registration date is provided in the paper.) Detailed Analysis: Criterion P requires a publicly pre-registered protocol with evidence that registration occurred before data collection began. The paper reports ethics approval, but it does not report any pre-registration registry entry (no registry name, no ID, and no registration date). Without a registry record, the timing requirement cannot be verified. An internet search for a registry record associated with this study (by title, authors, and key terms) did not identify a matching public pre-registration entry as of the ERCT check date. Final sentence: Criterion P is not met because the article does not report a public pre-registration registry entry or timing evidence.