A Randomized Controlled Trial of Foundations for Literacy With Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing

ERCT Criteria Breakdown

• Level 1 Criteria

  • C

    Class-level RCT

    • The unit of randomization was the classroom (teacher), meeting the class-level RCT requirement.
    • "The study is a cluster-level randomized controlled trial with classrooms randomly assigned to intervention or control blocked within the two classroom modes of communication (spoken only or bimodal)." (p. 7)
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "The study is a cluster-level randomized controlled trial with classrooms randomly assigned to intervention or control blocked within the two classroom modes of communication (spoken only or bimodal)." (p. 7) 2) "Forty-eight teachers in 14 states were randomly assigned to intervention or control groups." (p. 2) 3) "Randomization was conducted by this independent researcher in SAS 9.4 using the rannor function, followed by PROC RANK on the random numbers, and then dividing into treatment versus control using the mod(y,2) function to achieve an even split." (p. 7) Detailed Analysis: Criterion C requires random assignment at the class level (or stronger) to reduce contamination that can occur with within-class student-level assignment. The paper explicitly describes the design as a cluster-level RCT, with classrooms (teachers) as the randomized unit, and it also describes the randomization procedure in detail. Final sentence explaining if criterion C is met because randomization was implemented at the classroom level with a clearly described procedure.
  • E

    Exam-based Assessment

    • The primary outcomes were measured using established, standardized assessments (for example PAT-2, Woodcock-Johnson III, and PPVT-IV).
    • "We assessed receptive vocabulary with the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-IV (Receptive Vocab; Dunn & Dunn, 2007)." (p. 9)
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "Children were assessed with four subtests of the Phonological Awareness Test-2 (PAT-2; Robertson & Salter, 2007)..." (p. 9) 2) "Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-III- Letter-Word Identification (Letter-Word ID, Woodcock et al., 2007)..." (p. 9) 3) "We assessed receptive vocabulary with the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-IV (Receptive Vocab; Dunn & Dunn, 2007)." (p. 9) Detailed Analysis: Criterion E requires standardized, widely recognized assessments rather than researcher-created tests aligned to the intervention. The paper reports multiple established standardized instruments, including PAT-2, Woodcock-Johnson III subtests, and PPVT-IV. The paper also includes a curriculum-based "Keyword Decoding Test", but the presence of that additional measure does not negate that the study used standardized exams for key literacy outcomes. Final sentence explaining if criterion E is met because key outcomes were assessed with widely used standardized tests (PAT-2, WJ-III, PPVT-IV).
  • T

    Term Duration

    • Outcomes were measured across the school year, exceeding a single academic term.
    • "Teachers in the intervention group used Foundations one hour a day throughout the school year." (p. 2)
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "Teachers in the intervention group used Foundations one hour a day throughout the school year." (p. 2) 2) "Examiners administered a battery of language and literacy assessments at the beginning and end of the school year." (p. 8) Detailed Analysis: Criterion T requires outcome measurement at least one academic term after the intervention begins. The intervention ran throughout the school year, and assessment occurred at the beginning and end of that year, which is longer than a term. Final sentence explaining if criterion T is met because the study tracked outcomes from the start to the end of the school year.
  • D

    Documented Control Group

    • The control condition and baseline characteristics are documented, with both demographics (Table 1) and descriptions of control instruction.
    • "Table 1 provides the demographic and background characteristics of the sample participants by group based on teacher report." (p. 8)
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "Control teachers continued their usual teaching practices during the intervention year and received Foundations training and curriculum in the summer after the study was completed." (p. 7) 2) "Table 1 provides the demographic and background characteristics of the sample participants by group based on teacher report." (p. 8) 3) "Group comparisons showed that intervention and control groups did not differ significantly in terms of gender, age, ethnicity, home language, FRL, or additional disabilities." (p. 8) Detailed Analysis: Criterion D requires a well-documented control group: who they are, how comparable they are at baseline, and what they received. The paper documents the control condition as usual teaching practices (with delayed training after the study), provides a demographic table, and reports that groups did not differ significantly on key baseline characteristics. Final sentence explaining if criterion D is met because the paper provides both baseline comparability information and a clear description of the control condition.

• Level 2 Criteria

  • S

    School-level RCT

    • Randomization was at the classroom (teacher) level rather than at the school level.
    • "The study is a cluster-level randomized controlled trial with classrooms randomly assigned to intervention or control..." (p. 7)
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "The study is a cluster-level randomized controlled trial with classrooms randomly assigned to intervention or control blocked within the two classroom modes of communication (spoken only or bimodal)." (p. 7) 2) "There were 48 teacher participants from 39 schools located in 14 states..." (p. 7) Detailed Analysis: Criterion S requires school-level randomization (schools assigned to conditions). The study explicitly states that classrooms (teachers) were randomized. The sample includes 48 teachers from 39 schools, which is consistent with a design where multiple classes (and potentially multiple teachers within a school) could be the unit of assignment. Final sentence explaining if criterion S is not met because assignment was at the classroom/teacher level, not the school level.
  • I

    Independent Conduct

    • The intervention was developed and evaluated by the same research team, so the evaluation was not independent of the intervention designers.
    • "It was developed by researchers and teachers over a 10-year period..." (p. 5)
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "It was developed by researchers and teachers over a 10-year period using an iterative design process..." (p. 5) 2) "The first and second authors contacted administrators at the state, city, and school level throughout the US." (p. 7) Detailed Analysis: Criterion I requires that the study be conducted independently from the intervention designers to reduce bias. The paper describes Foundations as developed through a multi-year process by researchers and teachers, and the authors themselves led recruitment. There is no statement that an external evaluation team independent of the intervention designers ran the study end-to-end. Final sentence explaining if criterion I is not met because the paper does not demonstrate independent (third-party) conduct separate from the intervention development team.
  • Y

    Year Duration

    • The intervention and measurement spanned the full academic school year.
    • "Examiners administered a battery of language and literacy assessments at the beginning and end of the school year." (p. 8)
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "Teachers in the intervention group used Foundations one hour a day throughout the school year." (p. 2) 2) "Examiners administered a battery of language and literacy assessments at the beginning and end of the school year." (p. 8) Detailed Analysis: Criterion Y requires measurement at least one full academic year after the intervention begins. The paper states the intervention occurred throughout the school year and that assessments were administered at the beginning and end of that school year. Final sentence explaining if criterion Y is met because the study covered and measured outcomes across a full school year.
  • B

    Balanced Control Group

    • The treatment replaced part of the normal literacy block rather than adding extra student instruction time, and the study evaluates the full implementation package (curriculum plus required teacher training and coaching) against business-as-usual.
    • "Teachers in the intervention group used Foundations one hour a day throughout the school year. Teachers in the control group taught their typical curricula." (p. 2)
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "Teachers in the intervention group used Foundations one hour a day throughout the school year. Teachers in the control group taught their typical curricula." (p. 2) 2) "Teachers in the intervention group attended a two-day professional development workshop during the summer." (p. 11) 3) "To provide ongoing coaching, a research team member sent written feedback to the teachers within two weeks that a unit was recorded." (p. 11) 4) "Control teachers continued their usual teaching practices during the intervention year and received Foundations training and curriculum in the summer after the study was completed." (p. 7) Detailed Analysis: Criterion B asks whether additional resources (time, budget, materials) are balanced across conditions, unless those resources are integral to the treatment being tested. Here, the student-facing instructional time is a one-hour literacy block, and the control group taught their typical curricula, suggesting the intervention is a curriculum replacement rather than added student time. The intervention package also includes additional teacher resources (two-day workshop and coaching feedback). These supports appear to be integral to implementing Foundations as tested in this RCT (the study evaluates Foundations under a feasible support model). The control group is business-as-usual by design (with delayed training after the study). Final sentence explaining if criterion B is met because the intervention primarily replaces existing instructional time, and added implementation supports are integral to the treatment package being evaluated.

• Level 3 Criteria

  • R

    Reproduced

    • No independent replication by a different research team was identified.
    • "It is the only randomized controlled trial of a comprehensive early literacy intervention specifically developed for DHH children..." (p. 2)
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "It is the only randomized controlled trial of a comprehensive early literacy intervention specifically developed for DHH children..." (p. 2) 2) "This study, together with previous peer-reviewed publications, supports the conclusion that Foundations is an effective intervention for young DHH children." (p. 2) Detailed Analysis: Criterion R requires an independent replication (different authors and team) in a peer-reviewed outlet. The paper itself states this is the only RCT of this comprehensive intervention for this population. The paper also cites earlier Foundations studies, but these are part of the same overall program of research rather than an independent replication. A web search for replication studies of this specific RCT and intervention (using the title, intervention name, and DOI) did not identify a peer- reviewed, independent replication by other authors as of the ERCT check date. Final sentence explaining if criterion R is not met because no independent replication was found.
  • A

    All-subject Exams

    • Outcomes were limited to language and literacy, with no standardized measures reported for other core subjects.
    • "Examiners administered a battery of language and literacy assessments at the beginning and end of the school year." (p. 8)
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "Examiners administered a battery of language and literacy assessments at the beginning and end of the school year." (p. 8) 2) "Assessors administered the following six assessments:" (p. 9) Detailed Analysis: Criterion A requires standardized assessments across all main subjects, not only the target domain, to detect possible trade-offs. This study reports a battery of language and literacy assessments and lists literacy- related measures (phonological awareness, alphabetic knowledge/decoding, and vocabulary). The paper does not report standardized assessments in other core subject areas (for example math or science). Final sentence explaining if criterion A is not met because the study measured only language and literacy outcomes rather than all main subjects.
  • G

    Graduation Tracking

    • The study did not track participants through graduation or an equivalent endpoint.
    • "We did not investigate the long-term outcomes of Foundations." (p. 18)
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "We did not investigate the long-term outcomes of Foundations." (p. 18) 2) "Examiners administered a battery of language and literacy assessments at the beginning and end of the school year." (p. 8) Detailed Analysis: Criterion G requires follow-up tracking through graduation (an appropriate graduation endpoint for the educational stage). The paper explicitly states that it did not investigate long-term outcomes and that assessment occurred at the beginning and end of the school year. A search for follow-up publications by the same author team reporting long-term tracking of this RCT cohort (for example into later grades) did not identify a paper that tracks this randomized cohort to graduation as of the ERCT check date. Final sentence explaining if criterion G is not met because outcomes were not tracked beyond the school year and no graduation-tracking follow-up report was found.
  • P

    Pre-Registered

    • The paper does not report a pre-registration record or registry identifier for the trial.
    • Relevant Quotes: 1) "Study procedures that included teacher consent and parent notification were approved by the Georgia State University Institutional Review Board as well as those of participating school districts." (p. 8) 2) "This research was supported by the US Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences through Award #R324C120001." (p. 19) Detailed Analysis: Criterion P requires that the full study protocol be pre-registered before data collection begins, with a verifiable registry record and timing. The paper provides IRB approval and funding information but does not provide a pre-registration statement, registry name, URL, or registration identifier. Attempts to verify a registry record via common education trial registries did not produce a specific, citable pre-registration entry for this study based on the information reported in the paper. Final sentence explaining if criterion P is not met because the paper does not provide a pre-registration record and none could be verified.